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Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
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Patterns and Universals of Adult Romantic Attachment Across 62 Cultural Regions

Are Models of Self and of Other Pancultural Constructs?

David P. Schmitt

Bradley University

Lidia Alcalay

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile

Melissa Allensworth

Bradley University

Jüri Allik

University of Tartu, Estonia

Lara Ault

University of Louisville

Ivars Austers

University of Latvia, Latvia

Kevin L. Bennett

University of New Mexico

Gabriel Bianchi

Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovak Republic

Fredrick Boholst

University of San Carlos, Philippines

Mary Ann Borg Cunen

University of Malta, Malta

Johan Braeckman

Ghent University, Belgium

Edwin G. Brainerd, Jr.

Clemson University

Leo Gerard A. Caral

University of San Carlos, Philippines

Gabrielle Caron

Université of Laval, Canada

Maria Martina Casullo

University of Buenos Aires, Argentina

Michael Cunningham

University of Louisville

Ikuo Daibo

Osaka University, Japan

Charlotte De Backer

Ghent University, Belgium

Eros De Souza

Illinois State University

Rolando Diaz-Loving

National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico

GlÁUcia Diniz

University of Brasilia, Brazil

Kevin Durkin

The University of Western Australia, Australia

Marcela Echegaray

University of Lima, Peru

Ekin Eremsoy

Bogaziçi Üniversitesi, Turkey

Harald A. Euler

University of Kassel, Germany

Ruth Falzon

University of Malta, Malta

Maryanne L. Fisher

York University, Canada

Dolores Foley

University of Queensland, Australia

Robert Fowler

Bradley University

Douglas P. Fry

Åbo Akademi University, Finland

Sirpa Fry

Åbo Akademi University, Finland

M. Arif Ghayur

Al-Akhawayn University, Morocco

Vijai N. Giri

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India

Debra L. Golden

University of Hawaii, Manoa

Karl Grammer

Ludwig-Boltzmann-Institute for Urban Ethology, Austria

Liria Grimaldi

University of Catania, Italy

Jamin Halberstadt

University of Otago, New Zealand

Shamsul Haque

University of Dhaka, Bangladesh

Dora Herrera

University of Lima, Peru

Janine Hertel

Technische Universität Chemnitz, Germany

Amanda Hitchell

Bradley University

Heather Hoffmann

Knox College

Danica Hooper

University of Queensland, Australia

Zuzana Hradilekova

Comenius University, Slovak Republic

Jasna Hudek-Kene-Evi

University of Rijeka, Croatia

Allen Huffcutt

Bradley University

Jas Jaafar

University of Malaya, Malaysia

Margarita Jankauskaite

Vilnius University, Lithuania

Heidi Kabangu-Stahel

Centre d’Enseignement les Gazelles, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Igor Kardum

University of Rijeka, Croatia

Brigitte Khoury

American University of Beirut, Lebanon

Hayrran Kwon

Kwangju Health College, South Korea

Kaia Laidra

University of Tartu, Estonia

Anton-Rupert Laireiter

Institute of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Austria

Dustin Lakerveld

University of Utrecht, the Netherlands

Ada Lampert

The Ruppin Institute, Israel

Maryanne Lauri

University of Malta, Malta

Marguerite LavallÉe

Université of Laval, Canada

Suk-Jae Lee

National Computerization Agency, South Korea

Luk Chung Leung

City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Kenneth D. Locke

University of Idaho

Vance Locke

The University of Western Australia, Australia

Ivan Luksik

Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovak Republic

Ishmael Magaisa

University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe

Dalia Marcinkeviciene

Vilnius Univeristy, Lithuania

AndrÉ Mata

University of Lisbon, Portugal

Rui Mata

University of Lisbon, Portugal

Barry Mccarthy

University of Central Lancashire, England

Michael E. Mills

Loyola Marymount University

Nhlanhla J. Mkhize

University of Natal, South Africa

JoÃO Moreira

University of Lisbon, Portugal

SÉRgio Moreira

University of Lisbon, Portugal

Miguel Moya

University of Granada, Spain

M. Munyae

University of Botswana, Botswana

Patricia Noller

University of Queensland, Australia

Hmoud Olimat

University of Jordan, Jordan

Adrian Opre

Babes Bolyai University, Romania

Alexia Panayiotou

University of Cyprus, Cyprus

Nebojsa Petrovic

University of Belgrade, Serbia

Karolien Poels

Ghent University, Belgium

Miroslav Popper

Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovak Republic

Maria Poulimenou

KPMG Kyriacou Counsultants SA, Greece

Volodymyr P'Yatokha

Volyn Regional Hospital, Ukraine

Michel Raymond

Université de Montpellier II, France

Ulf-Dietrich Reips

Universität Zürich, Switzerland

Susan E. Reneau

University of Alabama

Sofia Rivera-Aragon

National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico

Wade C. Rowatt

Baylor University

Willibald Ruch

Queens University Belfast, Northern Ireland

Velko S. Rus

Univeristy of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Marilyn P. Safir

University of Haifa, Israel

Sonia Salas

Universidad de La Serena, Chile

Fabio Sambataro

University of Catania, Italy

Kenneth N. Sandnabba

Åbo Akademi University, Finland

Rachel Schleeter

Bradley University

Marion K. Schulmeyer

Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia

Astrid SchÜTz

Technische Universität Chemnitz, Germany

Tullio Scrimali

University of Catania, Italy

Todd K. Shackelford

Florida Atlantic University

Mithila B. Sharan

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India

Phillip R. Shaver

University of California, Davis

Francis Sichona

University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Franco Simonetti

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile

Tilahun Sineshaw

Ramapo College of New Jersey

R. Sookdew

University of Natal, South Africa

Tom Speelman

Ghent University, Belgium

Spyros Spyrou

Cyprus College, Cyprus

H. Canan Sümer

Nebi Sümer

Middle East Technical University, Turkey

Marianna Supekova

Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovak Republic

Tomasz Szlendak

Nicholas Copernicus University, Poland

Robin Taylor

University of the South Pacific, Fiji

Bert Timmermans

Vrije Universiteit, Belgium

William Tooke

State University of New York, Plattsburgh

Ioannis Tsaousis

University of the Aegean, Greece

F. S.K. Tungaraza

University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Ashley Turner

Bradley University

Griet Vandermassen

Ghent University, Belgium

Tim Vanhoomissen

Frank Van Overwalle

Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium

Ine Vanwesenbeeck

The Netherlands Institute of Social Sexological Research, the Netherlands

Paul L. Vasey

University of Lethbridge, Canada

JoÃO Verissimo

University of Lisbon, Portugal

Martin Voracek

University of Vienna Medical School, Austria

Wendy W.N. Wan

University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Ta-Wei Wang

Yuan Ze University, Taiwan

Peter Weiss

Charles University, Czech Republic

Andik Wijaya

Couple Clinic Indonesia, Surabaya, Indonesia

Liesbeth Woertman

Utrecht University, the Netherlands

Gahyun Youn

Chonnam National University, South Korea

Agata ZupanÈiÈ

University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

As part of the International Sexuality Description Project, a total of 17,804 participants from 62 cultural regions completedthe RelationshipQuestionnaire(RQ), a self-reportmeasure of adult romanticattachment. Correlational analyses within each culture suggested that the Model of Self and the Model of Other scales of the RQ were psychometrically valid within most cultures. Contrary to expectations, the Model of Self and Model of Other dimensions of the RQ did not underlie the four-category model of attachment in the same way across all cultures. Analyses of specific attachment styles revealed that secure romantic attachment was normative in 79% of cultures and that preoccupied romantic attachment was particularly prevalent in East Asian cultures. Finally, the romantic attachment profiles of individual nations were correlated with sociocultural indicators in ways that supported evolutionary theories of romantic attachment and basic human mating strategies.

Key Words: romantic attachment • culture • internal working models • human mating strategies

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 4, 367-402 (2004)
DOI: 10.1177/0022022104266105


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